Alcohol-induced hyperprolactinemia also was evident in postmenopausal women (Gavaler 1994) and in men with AUD (Soyka et al. Trauma to the testes may affect sperm production and result in lower number of sperm. Characterization of the potent luteinizing hormone-releasing activity of KiSS-1 peptide, the natural ligand of GPR54. PMID: 11574424, De Jesus, L.A.; Carvalho, S.D. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 20(5): 954960, 1996. Therefore, genes alone do not determine . World Journal of Gastroenterology 16(11):13041313, 2010. ; Gerrity, M.; et al. PMID: 18034699, Seilicovich, A.; Rubio, M.; Duvilanski, B.; et al. 1992). PMID: 7215157, Mandrekar, P.; Bala, S.; Catalano, D.; et al. This effect did not seem to be mediated through a direct action of ethanol on the pituitary that would have rendered it less sensitive to GHRH, because intravenous injection of exogenous GHRH induced an increase in GH secretion in both ethanol-exposed (1 g/kg) and control men (Valimaki et al. Ethanol inhibits luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone release from the median eminence of prepubertal female rats in vitro: Investigation of its actions on norepinephrine and prostaglandin-E2. Alcohol, slow wave sleep, and the somatotropic axis. PMID: 3001809, Seki, M.; Yoshida, K.; and Okamura, Y. Diabetes Care 28(3):719725, 2005. Initiation and progression of puberty are controlled by signals from the central nervous system that stimulate the pulsatile diurnal secretion of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) from the hypothalamus into the hypothalamicpituitary portal system (Sarkar and Fink 1979; Sarkar et al. This syndrome arrives in two stages. 2016;40(4):657671. It's the unsteady, staggering walk of a long-term alcoholic. Sign up for text support. John C. Umhau, MD, MPH, CPE is board-certified in addiction medicine and preventative medicine. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 14(4):251302,1993. ; and Ylikahri, R. Effect of ethanol on serum concentrations of somatomedin C and the growth hormone (GH) secretion stimulated by the releasing hormone (GHRH). When alcohol reaches the brain, it interferes with . After it has reached the small intestines, alcohol will quickly travel to the brain and affect the communications between nerve cells. PMID: 25901040, Li, N.; Fu, S.; Zhu, F.; et al Alcohol intake induces diminished ovarian reserve in childbearing age women. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 31(12):21012105, 2007. Total Integrated Response: A measure of the area under the curve of the insulin or glucose response to an oral glucose challenge used to determine insulin resistance. ; Chiappa, S.A.; Fink, G.; and Sherwood, N.M. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone surge in pro-oestrous rats. Neurons within the hypothalamus produce and secrete releasing hormones, such as corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), luteinizing hormonereleasing hormone (LHRH), thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), and growth hormonereleasing hormone (GRH), as well as inhibiting hormones, such as somatostatin and dopamine, directly into the blood vessel connecting the hypothalamus with the pituitary gland (i.e., the hypothalamic hypophyseal portal vein). AUDs often are associated with chronic systemic inflammation and high levels of circulating proinflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, chronic alcohol exposure was associated with anxiety-producinglike (i.e., anxiogenic-like) behaviors (King et al. 1996). Endocrinology 131(6):26032608, 1992. Taken together, these findings clearly show that the activities of the HPG and GH/IGF-1 axes during puberty are closely interconnected. ; et al. PMID: 9727642, Maeda, N.; Shimomura, I.; Kishida, H.; et al. These effects were associated with reductions in total and free T3 levels, although the concentrations of total and free T4 as well as of TSH remained unchanged (Hegedus et al. PMID: 8554651, Plotsky, P.M. Finally, ethanol treatment had differential effects on various G-proteins in cells expressing only D2S or D2L, eliciting a marked increase in Gs expression and a decrease in Gi3 expression in D2S cells but a moderate increase in Gs and marked increase in Gi3 expression in D2L (Sengupta and Sarkar 2012). 2003; Ehrenreich et al. Conversely, decreasing adiponectin levels would be expected to result in increasing TNF levels. Neuropsychopharmacology 31(10):22552263, 2006. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 87(4):461463, 1985. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1994, pp. Alcohol may induce inflammation through both direct and indirect mechanisms. Circulation 102(11):12961301, 2000. PMID: 17554246, Bonnet, F.; Disse, E.; Laville, M.; et al. PMID: 8749812, Terasawa, E., and Fernandez, D. L. Neurobiological mechanisms of the onset of puberty in primates. 2008). PMID: 14693987, Strbak, V.; Benicky, J.; Macho, L.; et al. Chronic alcohol ingestion decreases pituitary-thyroid axis measures in Fischer-344 rats. ; Urbanski, H.F.; Costa, M.E. We have been taught that alcohol has toxins, but at what point does that negatively change our most important organ: the brain? ; et al. Overall, as ethanol increases in concentration it do. Studies in both humans and animal models have helped shed light on alcohols effects on various components of the endocrine system and their consequences. Vasopressin and oxytocin: Distribution and putative functions in the brain. Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone. Hippocampus Emotions and memories are created in this region. Alcohol also affects the liver, which is important for activating vitamin D-- which is also important for calcium absorption." The hormones important to bone health also go awry. 2002). Drinking alcohol excessively can cause both short-term and long-term changes to many hormones in your body, including testosterone. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 34(11):18351842, 2010. ; Kovalenko, V.M. Thus, BAT was shown to release factors such as IGF-1, fibroblast growth factor-2, IL-1, IL-6, bone morphogenetic protein-8b, and lipocalin prostaglandin D synthase that primarily have autocrine or paracrine actions (Villarroya et al. Increase secretion of glucagon and other hormones that raise glucose levels. PMID: 19561104, Martinez-Riera, A.; Santolaria-Fernandez, F.; Gonzalez Reimers, E.; et al. Arhiv za Higijenu Rada i Toksikologiju 64(2):5160, 2013. American Journal of Epidemiology 132(5):902909, 1990. To prevent either stage from happening, those who abuse alcohol need to monitor their vitamin B intake. ; Haass-Koffler, C.L. This mechanism may explain why alcohol abuse results in hypogonadism even in the absence of liver disease. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology 21(Suppl 3):S69S75, 2006. Due to its small size alcohol in the blood can passively diffuse (through the blood brain barrier) into the brain. Clinical Endocrinology (Oxford) 55(1):4146, 2001. PMID: 15135771, Varlinskaya, E.I., and Spear, L.P. PMID: 9781633, Thamer, C.; Haap, M.; Fritsche, A.; et al. And while all alcohol affects the liver's ability to get rid of excess estrogen, beer contains phytoestrogensplant-derived estrogens that dampen virility and fertility. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 245(3):895904, 1988. Chronic alcohol effects on anterior pituitary and ovarian hormones in healthy women. The type 2 iodothyronine deiodinase is essential for adaptive thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue. Inverse relationship between CSF TRH concentrations and the TSH response to TRH in abstinent alcohol-dependent patients. By clicking Accept All Cookies, you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts. ; de Zoete, E.C. Alcohol, intestinal bacterial growth, intestinal permeability to endotoxin, and medical consequences: Summary of a symposium. This hormone system controls the stress-response pathways and regulates many of the bodys physiological processes, such as metabolic, cardiovascular, and immune functions. For those underage, alcohol has the greatest effect. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 739:168175, 1994. ; et al. In rats, chronic alcohol exposure induced an increase in TRH mRNA in neurons of the PVN, but the animals no longer responded to peripheral stimulation of thyroid hormone secretion by exposure to cold (Zoeller et al. ; Zakhari, S.; and Jung, M.K. At the same time, the AVP binds to V1b receptors, potentiating the effects of CRF on ACTH production in the anterior pituitary. IUBMB Life 60(12):790797, 2008. Relationship between moderate alcohol consumption and adiponectin and insulin sensitivity in a large heterogeneous population. . 1991). Four-week ethanol intake decreases food intake and body weight but does not affect plasma leptin, corticosterone, and insulin levels in pubertal rats. Dose-response determinations revealed that alcohol produced a biphasic effect on serum testosterone and LH: low doses of alcohol significantly increased testosterone and LH, whereas high doses decreased the levels of both hormones. Conversely, the -cells of the pancreas produce insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels after a meal by stimulating the absorption of glucose by liver, muscle, and adipose tissues and promoting the storage of glucose in the form of glycogen in these tissues. A variety of effects of alcohol on endocrine function are now well documented. ; et al. Thus, glucocorticoids bind to mineralocorticoid (type 1) receptors and glucocorticoid (type 2) receptors in the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and pituitary. Ethanol induces apoptotic death of beta-endorphin neurons in the rat hypothalamus by a TGF-beta 1-dependent mechanism. In studies in rhesus macaques, administration of alcohol (2 g/kg) for 12 months to immature females resulted in suppression of the nightly increase in circulating GH that occurs during late juvenile development (Dees et al. Improper function of the hypothalamus or pituitary glands. There are many hormones in the body that regulate the reproductive system. The role of these processes in ethanol-induced modifications of prolactin levels was confirmed by the finding that treatment with agents that prevent DNA methylation and/or histone deacetylase activity normalized D2R mRNA expression, pituitary weight, and plasma prolactin levels in fetal alcoholexposed rats (Gangisetty et al. By interfering with the hormone system, alcohol can affect blood sugar levels, impair reproductive functions, interfere with calcium metabolism and bone structure, affect hunger and digestion, and increase the risk of osteoporosis. The .gov means its official. ; Racey, P.A. Overdosing on alcohol often follows blackouts, which can be dangerous and even lethal. PMID: 18979677, Rivier, C., and Lee, S. Acute alcohol administration stimulates the activity of hypothalamic neurons that express corticotropin-releasing factor and vasopressin. The hypothalamus coordinates the automatic functions in the brain and regulates the release of hormones. Journal of Immunology 183(7):47334744, 2009. 2006). The hippocampus is a brain structure vital to learning and memory. Hyperprolactinemia following chronic alcohol administration. Metabolism 44(12):15771580, 1995. Other oxytocin-releasing neurons are located outside the hypothalamus, in the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (Ross and Young 2009). ; Ajmo, J.M. 2015). Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 140:2732, 2016. ; McArthur, N.H.; Farr, K.L. ; et al. The damage to the brain can slow down reaction time and create general apathy., Sometimes people with hepatic encephalopathy appear drunk even when sober due to slurred speech and behaviors that lie out of social norms or even norms for them before the damage occurred. 1987). Moreover, each month during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, FSH stimulates the development of a dominant follicle in the ovary, which then produces and secretes the hormone estradiol. PMID: 12351938, De, A.; Boyadjieva, N.; Pastorcic, M.; and Sarkar, D. Potentiation of the mitogenic effect of estrogen on the pituitary-gland by alcohol-consumption. The offers that appear in this table are from partnerships from which Verywell Mind receives compensation. Research shows that genes are responsible for about half of the risk for AUD. 2008; Wang et al. All of these studies clearly show that heavy alcohol consumption has deleterious effects on pancreatic -cell function and glucose homeostasis. ; Barrett-Connor, E.; and Wingard, D.L. This is how even one binge event can lead to an untimely death. The gray matter houses most of the brain's neurotransmitters, while the white matter houses the axons, which keep the neurons together. TNF production was increased in adipose tissue at early stages of alcoholic fatty liver, resulting in increases in both circulating and local TNF levels (Lin et al. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. 1988). Thats why its fairly obvious to tell the difference between someone who has had three drinks and someone who has had twelve. It is considered a tropic hormone. Alcohol can interfere with the function of each of these components, thereby causing impotence, infertility, and reduced male secondary sexual characteristics. After menopause, estradiol levels decline drastically because the hormone is no longer synthesized in the ovaries, and only small amounts are derived from the conversion of testosterone in other tissues. The hypothalamus consolidates inputs derived from higher brain centers, various environmental cues, and endocrine feedback. Neuropsychopharmacology 29(6): 11561165, 2004. ; et al. PMID: 6665132, Castilla-Cortazar, I.; Quiroga J.; and Prieto, J. Insulin-like growth factor-I, liver function, and hypogonadism in rats with experimentally induced cirrhosis. Several studies of the effect of alcohol on the frontal lobes were identified for review from MedLine, PsychLIT databases and by manual searching. Diabetes Care 27(1):184189, 2004. In order to affect cognitive functions such as learning and memory alcohol must first enter the brain. Chronic ethanol consumption induces the production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and related cytokines in liver and adipose tissue. Alcohol can impair the adequate functioning of the testes and ovaries and result in hormonal deficiencies, sexual dysfunction, and infertility., Some of the problems that alcohol consumption can cause by interfering with the male hormonal system include:, Although many reproductive problems were found in women who were alcoholics, some problems were also found in women considered social drinkers. Verywell Mind uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Hegedus, L.; Rasmussen, N.; Ravn, V.; et al. 1991). There are two isoforms of the D2R, a long (D2L) and a short (D2S) isoform.1 Chronic exposure to ethanol increases the expression of prolactin mRNA and of D2L mRNA but decreases expression of D2S both in the pituitary of Fischer-344 rats and in primary cultures of anterior pituitary cells (Oomizu et al. Life Sciences 50(6):PL35PL40, 1992. ; Kok, F.J.; et al. 2013). For those with severe addiction, rehabilitation or detoxification may be the best first step in a treatment plan. ROS produced during alcohol metabolism may cause cell damage in the testes (Emanuele et al. This suggests that chronic exposure to ethanol induces dysfunction of the thyroid gland, which then is no longer able to properly respond to TRH stimulation. PMID: 18709650, Sierksma, A.; Patel, H.; Ouchi, N.; et al. Direct actions of ethanol on thyroid hormone metabolism, specifically on the activity of enzymes that catalyze the conversion of T4 to T3 (i.e., 5II deiodinase) or inactivate T3 to 3,3-T2 (i.e., 5-II deiodinase), also have been proposed. 2000; Yokota et al. See full answer below. PMID: 15913658, Villarroya, J.; Cereijo, R.; and Villarroya, F. An endocrine role for brown adipose tissue? Endocrine Reviews 22(1):111151, 2001. Several studies clearly have demonstrated that ethanol exposure during the developmental period induced neurotoxicity and permanent impairments in the HPA axis that were associated with immune dysfunction (Hellemans et al. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research, Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 2013). Alcohol interferes with all three sources of glucose and interferes with the hormones that regulate glucose levels. This research was supported by National Institutes of Health grants R37AA08757, R01AA11591, and R21AA024330. 2015; Herman 2002). 2003). Alter the effectiveness of medications for diabetes. 2023 Dotdash Media, Inc. All rights reserved. These neurons secrete primarily two hormones from the posterior pituitary into the systemic blood: arginine vasopressin (AVP), which controls the renal water handling and cardiovascular functions, and oxytocin, which regulates milk ejection during lactation and uterine contractions during birth. For example, men with AUD exhibited impairments both in the serotonin-mediated stimulation of GH secretion (Coiro and Vescovi 1995) and in melatonins effect on basal and hypoglycemia-induced GH secretion (Coiro and Vescovi 1998) during early abstinence. Many then begin the drinking process again to ease the negative or regretful feeling a hangover produces.. Effects of ethanol during the onset of female puberty. Intake of alcohol can create harm to the tissues in the digestive tract. Verywell Mind's content is for informational and educational purposes only. 2013). The frequency of daily ethanol consumption influences the effect of ethanol on insulin sensitivity in rats fed a high-fat diet. Thus, by binding to their receptors, glucocorticoids can interfere with certain signaling pathways that repress transcription of many inflammatory proteins (Barnes 2006). Pathophysiology of the Effects of Alcohol Abuse on the Endocrine System. 1984). Diabetes Care 23(1):1822, 2000. PMID: 12824819, Sarkar, D.K. Learnmore about the formation of memory. Over time, the consumption of alcohol can disrupt the body's normal functions and leave it more susceptible to other health problems. However, the link between alcohol and the HPA axis means frequent drinking can disrupt the body's stress response system leading to increase in anxiousness and other symptoms of stress. ; et al. Endocrinology Reviews 10(1):92112, 1989. Insulin Resistance: Impairment of the normal physiological response to insulin that may be the result of a variety of abnormalities; occurs in diabetes mellitus. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research 39(2):516521, 2013. PMID: 6316391, Sarkar, D. K.; Kuhn, P.; Marano, J.; et al. 2013). Several studies, including the large NIHAARP Diet and Health Study that followed 490,000 participants (males and females) over 7.5 years, have shown a significant reduction in the risk of developing all types of thyroid cancers in people who consumed two or more alcoholic drinks per day, especially in men. Alcohol: A Simple Nutrient with Complex Actions on Bone in the Adult Skeleton. 2015). After the amygdala sends a distress signal, the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system by sending signals through the autonomic nerves to the adrenal glands. ; Zeldin, G.; and Diehl, A.M. In the testes, alcohol can adversely affect the Leydig cells, which produce and secrete the hormone testosterone. They include: The brain is also made up of two different types of matter: gray and white. These hormones facilitate an immediate reaction by triggering physiological changes, such as increased heart rate and respiration, and provide the body with a burst of energy through the release of sugar (i.e., glucose) and fat into the bloodstream as energy sources that help the body to respond to the stressors and fight off the threat. These types of communities can make you feel less alone and offer you a place to speak without fear of ridicule or judgment. 2004; Bantle et al. In addition, exposure of ovariectomized rats to ethanol for 2 to 4 weeks reduced the expression of two other G-proteins, Gi2 and Gi3 (Chaturvedi and Sarkar 2008). While heavy drinking constricts blood vessels and can shrink the brain, one type of brain cells appears to be permanently damaged once the person achieves sobriety: the gray matter cells in the Parietal Lobe, the part of the brain in charge of spatial processing., Even years after he or she stops drinking, a dependent drinker can have trouble figuring out how things relate to each other, such as judging distances on a map or putting a puzzle together. ; Lukas, S.E. PMID: 10189054, De Marinis, L.; Mancini, A.; Fiumara, C.; et al. Studies have shown that alcohol intake consistently induces an increase in estradiol levels in humans (Mendelson and Mello 1988; Muti et al. Heavy alcohol consumption, in contrast, has several detrimental effects resulting in impaired control of blood glucose levels. PMID: 8258377, Dees, W.L. Alcoholic fatty liver (i.e., steatosis) is one of the most prevalent forms of chronic liver diseases caused by alcohol abuse; it is characterized by the excessive accumulation of fat in the liver and can progress to more severe forms of liver injury, such as steatohepatitis, fibrosis, and cirrhosis. Drinking alcohol really can make you hungrier, according to a 2017 study conducted by the Francis Crick Institute in the UK. However, more studies are needed to specify the mechanisms by which chronic alcohol affects -cell function. 1999). Alcohol intake and risk of thyroid cancer in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. 2000). PMID: 25456265, Wei, M.; Gibbons, L.W. Cause both hypoglycemic and hyperglycemic episodes in alcoholics. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 15(5):457467, 2012. ; Lee, S.Y. The hypothalamus is a part of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and plays a significant part in adrenal insufficiency. In addition, experiments in another cultured -cell line indicated that heavy alcohol consumption may induce -cell dysfunction in type 2 diabetes by increasing the production of reactive oxygen species and inducing apoptosis in the cells (Dembele et al. At birth, plasma IGF-1 levels are at 50 percent of the adult levels and gradually increase throughout childhood with a spike during puberty, when IGF-1 plays a critical role in reproductive-organ maturation and long-bone growth. Don't miss out on FREE 24/7 access to support via SMS. Evidence also indicates that both AVP and oxytocin act not only as hormones but also as neuromodulators and neurotransmitters within the central nervous system (de Wied et al. Soberlink and the accountability model it provides users often serves as a reminder of effects, such as the ones to the brain, that are occurring due to heavy alcohol consumption. ; Ye, W.; and Lhr, J.M. ; et al. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62(9):10981105, 2008. PMID: 395267, Sarkar, D.K. ; et al. PMID: 15706759, Avogaro, A.; Watanabe, R.M. Contact the Duke WordPress team. 2012). The level of dopamine (DA) can increase in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) in anticipation and as a consequence of . ; and Korsten, M.A. ; De Vries, G.J. T4 and T3 circulate in two forms, a protein-bound inactive form and a free, readily available active form. This effect was associated with a significant decline in circulating IGF-1, LH, and estrogen and was most pronounced at 32 months of age. Eating Disorders and Hypothalamic Amenorrhea. 2013). At the anterior pituitary, CRF binds to CRF1 receptors and stimulates specific cells (i.e., corticotropic cells) to synthesize and secrete a peptide called proopiomelanocortin (POMC). Like AVP, oxytocin is produced by both magnocellular and parvocellular neurons of the hypothalamus. Fetal alcohol exposure from day 7 to day 21 of gestation increased pituitary weight, pituitary prolactin mRNA and protein content, and prolactin plasma levels in female rats compared with control animals (Gangisetty et al. 2008; Varlinskaya and Spear 2006). Through these different communication pathways, WAT can influence the function of many tissues, such as hypothalamus, pancreas, skeletal muscle, and immune system. Nadia Rachdaoui, Ph.D., is an assistant research professor, and Dipak K. Sarkar, Ph.D., D.Phil., is Board of Governors Distinguished Professor, in the Rutgers Endocrine Research Program, Department of Animal Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey. PMID: 10397281, Sarnyai, Z.; Shaham, Y.; and Heinrichs, S.C. Alcohol 42(5):349361, 2008. 1981), whereas others found significantly reduced tT4 levels (Valimaki et al. As part of the HPA axis, it releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in response to AVP and CRH, triggering the adrenals into completing the stress response. PMID: 20575772, Wang, H.J. Chronic ethanol-induced insulin resistance is associated with macrophage infiltration into adipose tissue and altered expression of adipocytokines. The endocrine function of the pancreas primarily is controlled by both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. However, AVP and oxytocin also can be produced in another group of neurons in the PVN and supraoptic nuclei (i.e., in the parvocellular neurons) and released into the hypothalamichypophyseal portal vessels to reach the anterior pituitary. There are two types of adipose tissuewhite adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT)that differ in their morphology and function. PMID: 19862001, Mendelson, J.H., and Mello, N.K. Research proves alcohol has a clear effect on the brain. Considerable evidence indicates that alcohol abuse results in clinical abnormalities of one of the bodys most important systems, the endocrine system. ; Faletti, A.G.; et al. Chronic alcohol consumption also is a known independent risk factor for the development of type 2 diabetes (Hodge et al. ; Mitchell, T.L. ; Pritchard, M.T. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. More commonly known as wet brain, this syndrome is caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency. In contrast to these effects of chronic alcohol use on thyroid hormones, moderate alcohol consumption was shown to reduce the risk of developing thyroid cancer. First, acinar cells secrete digestive enzymes into the small intestine, thereby supporting digestion. It also appears vulnerable to damage from . ; Sliwowska, J.H. These gonadotropins regulate the development of follicles (i.e., folliculogenesis) in females and of sperm (i.e., spermatogenesis) in males. 2009). The body's blood sugar levels are controlled by insulin and glucagon, hormones secreted by the pancreas. The levels of free T4 and T3, however, were lower in people with AUD during withdrawal and early abstinence compared with nonalcoholic healthy control subjects (Hegedus et al. At the anterior pituitary, LHRH stimulates the production and secretion of FSH and LH from gonadotropic cells into the general circulation. PMID: 7199834, Dearth, R.K.; Hiney, J.K.; and Dees, W.L. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 29:187193, 2014. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 97(5):23372342, 2000. As an example, thyroid-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus . Effects of alcohol on the endocrine system.